The city was founded as a result of the influx of refugees into the marshes of the Po estuary following the invasion of northern Italy by the Lombards in 568. In the mid-8th century, the Venetians resisted the empire-building efforts of Pepin III and remained subject to the Byzantine Empire, at least theoretically. As the community continued to develop and as Byzantine power waned, an increasingly anti-Eastern character emerged, leading to the growth of autonomy and eventual independence. Venice was a city state (an Italian thalassocracy, the other three being Genoa, Pisa, and Amalfi). Its strategic position at head of the Adriatic made Venetian naval and commercial power almost invulnerable.

In the 12th century the essentials for the power of Venice were laid: the Venetian Arsenal was under construction in 1104; Venice wrested control of the Brenner pass from Verona in 1178, opening a lifeline to silver from Germany; the last autocratic doge, Vitale Michiele, died in 1172.

The Republic of Venice seized the eastern shores of the Adriatic before 1200, mostly for commercial reasons, because pirates based there were a menace to trade. The Doge already carried the titles of Duke of Dalmatia and Duke of Istria. Later mainland possessions, which extended across Lake Garda as far west as the Adda River, were known as "Terraferma", and were acquired partly as a buffer against belligerent neighbors, partly to guarantee Alpine trade routes, and partly to ensure the supply of mainland wheat, on which the city depended. In building its maritime commercial empire, the Republic acquired control of most of the islands in the Aegean, including Cyprus and Crete, and became a major power-broker in the Near East. By the standards of the time, Venice's stewardship of its mainland territories was relatively enlightened and the citizens of such towns as Bergamo, Brescia, and Verona rallied to the defence of Venetian sovereignty when it was threatened by invaders.

Venice became an imperial power following the Fourth Crusade, which (with Venetian aid) seized Constantinople in 1204 and established the Latin Empire. Considerable plunder was brought back to Venice, including the Winged Lion of St. Mark, symbol of Venice. Only Venetian ships could efficiently transport the men, supplies, and (especially) war horses.

The Venetian governmental structure was a mix of Byzantine and Islamic systems, but the social order was entirely feudal. Church and various private properties were tied to military service, though there was no knight tenure within the city itself. The Cavalieri di San Marco was the only order of chivalry ever instituted in Venice, and no citizen could accept or join a foreign order without the government’s consent. Venice remained a republic throughout its independent period and politics and the military were kept completely separate. War was regarded as a continuation of commerce by other means (hence, the city's early production of large numbers of mercenaries for service elsewhere).

The chief executive was the Doge (duke), who, theoretically, held his elective office for life. In practice, a number of Doges were forced by pressure from their oligarchical peers to resign the office and retire into monastic seclusion when they were felt to have been discredited by perceived political failure.

Though the people of Venice generally remained orthodox Roman Catholics, the state of Venice was notable for its freedom from religious fanaticism and it enacted not a single execution for religious heresy during the Counter-Reformation. This apparent lack of zeal contributed to its frequently coming into conflict with the Papacy. Venice was threatened with the interdict on a number of occasions and twice suffered its imposition. The second, more famous, occasion was on April 27, 1509, by order of Pope Julius II

During XV Century armours for horse and rider got lighter and lighter in order to increase their mobility, and often homini d’arme rode horses which were deprived of any protection and wore only an armour which covered them just to the knees leaving the leg protection to high rider boots: these new style cavalry, called “cavallaria liziera” or “cavallezeri”, still used heavy cavalry technique like charges with lance and fight with swords and clubs, but their armour was more up to date, reducing superflous part and strenghtening the breastplate and helmet. Reduced weight meant more speed and endurance, as well as a reduced price tag, which was allways welocome for an increasingly strechted budgets and failing economy of the Italian cities.

In mid to late 16 th century these riders formed the backbone of the Italian cavalry.

Italian Homini d’arme, unlike the established social order in other western countries, were not necessarily from noble families. True professional soldiers would draw up a contract where they offered their military services in exchange for money. Armament production in “ Italy” was so abundant and of high quality that it was easy for these cavalry to get fine equipment. Their military ability very highly regarded, among the best but their devotion was not: their motives were only money and not prestige, honour or (increasingly common) nationaly sentiment like other noble cavalry. Furthermore, the tactics they used stressed the use of small squadrons of 25 cavalrymen at most, rotating them as they were used up. Italian early Reanaissance armies stressed clever tactics and strategic maneuvers, and not bloodshed. When this approach collided with the new French and Spanish armies during the Italian wars, it quickly revealed all of its shortcomings. The Italians often spoke of the ‘furia Francese’, referring to the almost insane desire (from Italian perspective) of the French to win at all costs.

Crossbowmen mounted on horseback, equipped with smaller crossbowes then infantry, were an attempt by western countries of reproducing the oriental horse archers efficacy.
Even if they at times achived good results, crossbows had a slow rate of fire which pressed the need for them to stay clear of trouble by using mobile tactics of shooting a volley or two and then disengaging. Stand off against enemy missile infantry was a sure way to commit suicide. Similarly, a duel with eastern horse archers will result in disproportionate losses bing suffered. Melee should be avoided unless a favourable position is achieved or if chasing a routed opponent.

The light cavalry element of the early western armies consisted mostly of mounted sergeants. These men were the an integral element of the still feudal ‘lance’, a basic organizational unit which consisted of a knight with several of his retainers, both mounted and dismounted. With "armigero" and "paggio", these formed the so called "Italian lance" somewhat larger than was the norm. In late 15 th century and early 16 th, the more effective mercenary stradioti were added, which were a true light cavalry.

Mounted sergeants suffered from a number of drawbacks. They were considered to be a supporting element of the lance, and the heavy cavalrymen were reluctant to cut them free, preffering to keep them close by, as a second and third line supporting their charges. They were therefore mirroring the tactics of the heavy cavalry, but without the benefit of heavy armour. Furthermore, their horses were usually cheap ‘palfreys’ or similar breeds, cost effective and sturdy, but not a true light cavalry mount, and not as fast as eastern breeds. Finally, they suffered from the same malady which afflicted the heavy knights – being a feudal or semi-feudal force, they were not accustemed to fighting in permanent formations, which was a prerequisite for more complex manouvers. Instead, their lances and banners were purely administrative formations with little practical experience of fighting together as a cohesive whole.

During the XV century Italian countries needed to create a standing heavy cavalry corp. Lanze Spezzate were the result – literally it means ‘a broken lance’.
These soldiers were mainly recruited among mercenary troops, deserters or loose companies veterans, from lances which lost several of tehir members, they received a life assignment fom the city they served. Richer cities, like Venice or Milan could afford many hundreds of such troops.

The power of Venice was in its ships; its huge merchant fleet, acted as a vital link between the east and the west, carrying the industrial products eastwards and returning with shiploads of indigo, pepper, silk, and other exotic and luxury items from the Far and Near East. The warships were the watchdogs of the merchant fleet. Altogether, Venice could put almost 100 wargalleys at sea if it wanted to fully flex its muscles.

The one thing that made all of this possible, besides extraordinary wealth, was the Arsenal of Venice. Basically a huge shipyard, at all times it was well stocked with timber, ropes, powder, cannons and other weapons, spare parts, and already made ships, that only needed crews. This was the secret strength of the Republic - instead of maintaining a huge war fleet, Venice kept most of its war galleys in drydock, ready to sail at a moments notice. All they needed were the crews, and those were easy to find among the huge merchant fleet.

Extensive overseas possessions of the Republic were mostly concentrated in the Eastern Mediterranean. Ancient archery traditions were not forgotten there, and these possessions gave Venice perfect recruiting grounds for archers. Using composite bows, they were more like the Ottoman Turks they were usually fighting than the rest of the Venetian Western based army. They provided valuable service for garrisoning those far flung reaches of the ever shrinking Serenissima.

Much of XV century warfare in Italy was about long, drawn out sieges. Even field battles often revolved around extensive field fortifications. An infantry best suited for such conditions should be light, fast, and above all cheap.

The power of Venice was in its ships; its huge merchant fleet, acted as a vital link between the east and the west, carrying the industrial products eastwards and returning with shiploads of indigo, pepper, silk, and other exotic and luxury items from the Far and Near East. The warships were the watchdogs of the merchant fleet. Altogether, Venice could put almost 100 wargalleys at sea if it wanted to fully flex its muscles.

Muskets were long-barreled versions of the arquebuses. Longer barrels (up to 1.5 meters) gave them longer reach and higher muzzle velocity, but it also meant lower rate of fire, and much heavier weapons, requiring the use of rest to properly aim the gun. Many soldiers were wary of such cumbersome weapons, and the musket took a long time to be included in the armies of Renaissance. Even then, it was mostly an addition to the already established arquebus, and rarely formed more than 10% of the entire infantry force. At the end of the 16 th century armourers began making improved armourers designed to be shot-proof at extended ranges. The revived heavy cavalry, the cuirassiers, were much more resistant to the arquebus, and the musket finally came into its own. By 17 th century, musketeers formed more than 50% of the infantry.

City-states of Italy, while creating an army on a more professional basis like “provisionati”, never abolished the ancient use of the general call to arms for all the capable men. This way they could still field a great variety of soldiers in a short period of time, for city defence, fortification building and pioneering tasks. Surely less important in actual battles, quick to desert and ill disciplined, “militias” were still useful to defend cities and territories for a fraction of a cost. These “militiae”, called in the XV century “Ordinanze”, during the XVI century changed its name into “Cernide” from the Latin “cernere” (chosen / selected). Every municipality had to supply a certain number, called “carata”, of these soldiers. Selected for age and qualification, they were separated accordingly with their military equipment. They weren’t asked to give effective and extended military service but to train themselves during holidays and to be prepared, obviously, in case of war. Such Ordinances were drafted among the urban communes, and formed the backbone of medieval Italian armies. By early 15 th century they experienced a marked decline in their combat effectiveness due to the erosion of civil authority in many communes, but they remained a cheap, easily accessible and effecive force, those of Venetian Terra Firma possessions being more effective than the rest of the lot.

The most important military revolution of the Renaissance was the introduction of firearms. Their lethal effect was mainly caused by the lead ball projectile, which carried enough energy to punch a hole in armour, but was not covered in a steel capsule and so flattened upon entry due to the high velocity, and added to the perforating effect the laceration of the body tissue. This caused horrific wounds that were difficult, if not impossible to heal. If that wasn’t enough, the lead ball would usually push pieces of fabric deep into the wound, which would often cause the wound to fester. Arquebus was invented about the year 1460 and differes from the previous weapon (handgun) by the wooden butt and the serpentine fire system (an “S” where the fuse was settled). From the 1517 it was changed with the wheel gun-lock.
Fire weapons were used alongside the more conventional missile weapons for many years because the first portable fire weapons were not reliable. A skilled and well trained archer was able to shoot, with good accuracy, 10 arrows in a minute in a 200 mt radius while several minutes were necessary to reload an arquebus of early 1500s, which could fire with accuracy in a 50 mt radius and was totally inefficient over 100 mt. The proliferation of firearms was due to the fact that they were a very easy weapon to use while several years of training were needed to train a skilled archer.

City-states of Italy, while creating an army on a more professional basis like “provisionati”, never abolished the ancient use of the general call to arms for all the capable men. This way they could still field a great variety of soldiers in a short period of time, for city defence, fortification building and pioneering tasks. Surely less important in actual battles, quick to desert and ill disciplined, “militias” were still useful to defend cities and territories for a fraction of a cost. These “militiae”, called in the XV century “Ordinanze”, during the XVI century changed its name into “Cernide” from the Latin “cernere” (chosen / selected). Every municipality had to supply a certain number, called “carata”, of these soldiers. Selected for age and qualification, they were separated accordingly with their military equipment. They weren’t asked to give effective and extended military service but to train themselves during holidays and to be prepared, obviously, in case of war. Such Ordinances were drafted among the urban communes, and formed the backbone of medieval Italian armies. By early 15 th century they experienced a marked decline in their combat effectiveness due to the erosion of civil authority in many communes, but they remained a cheap, easily accessible and effecive force, those of Venetian Terra Firma possessions being more effective than the rest of the lot.

Italian Communes had great a long and illustrious tradition of using crossbows. With this weapon, the mercenaries from Genoa became famed throughout Europe: better equipped then standard infantry, they were considered an elite force. Crossbows were the primary missile weapons of the Western Europe. Archery fell out of favour, and the crossbow was relatively easy to use. A previously untrained soldier could become skilled in its use in a few months, while bows required a lifetime of dedicated practice, not only to develop the near instinctive feeling for the trajectory of an arrow but also to develop the muscles needed to harness the bows with a draw weight between 80 and 120 kilograms. Crossbowmen are found in almost every army of the 15 th and early 16 th century. In addition to being good quality missile troops, they can hold their own in a melee. These troops are versatile, tough, adequately armoured and cost effective, and provide the backbone of a late medieval and early Renaissance army. Crossbow was an easy weapon to use, even for unskilled troops like the Ordinance were. A smart general, anyway, always avoided using crossbowmen in the first line of the battle where enemy could put them to rout easily.

City-states of Italy, while creating an army on a more professional basis like “provisionati”, never abolished the ancient use of the general call to arms for all the capable men. This way they could still field a great variety of soldiers in a short period of time, for city defence, fortification building and pioneering tasks. Surely less important in actual battles, quick to desert and ill disciplined, “militias” were still useful to defend cities and territories for a fraction of a cost. These “militiae”, called in the XV century “Ordinanze”, during the XVI century changed its name into “Cernide” from the Latin “cernere” (chosen / selected). Every municipality had to supply a certain number, called “carata”, of these soldiers. Selected for age and qualification, they were separated accordingly with their military equipment. They weren’t asked to give effective and extended military service but to train themselves during holidays and to be prepared, obviously, in case of war. Such Ordinances were drafted among the urban communes, and formed the backbone of medieval Italian armies. By early 15 th century they experienced a marked decline in their combat effectiveness due to the erosion of civil authority in many communes, but they remained a cheap, easily accessible and effecive force, those of Venetian Terra Firma possessions being more effective than the rest of the lot.

City-states of Italy, while creating an army on a more professional basis like “provisionati”, never abolished the ancient use of the general call to arms for all the capable men. This way they could still field a great variety of soldiers in a short period of time, for city defence, fortification building and pioneering tasks. Surely less important in actual battles, quick to desert and ill disciplined, “militias” were still useful to defend cities and territories for a fraction of a cost. These “militiae”, called in the XV century “Ordinanze”, during the XVI century changed its name into “Cernide” from the Latin “cernere” (chosen / selected). Every municipality had to supply a certain number, called “carata”, of these soldiers. Selected for age and qualification, they were separated accordingly with their military equipment. They weren’t asked to give effective and extended military service but to train themselves during holidays and to be prepared, obviously, in case of war. Such Ordinances were drafted among the urban communes, and formed the backbone of medieval Italian armies. By early 15 th century they experienced a marked decline in their combat effectiveness due to the erosion of civil authority in many communes, but they remained a cheap, easily accessible and effecive force, those of Venetian Terra Firma possessions being more effective than the rest of the lot.

The revolutionary developments in military tactics during the early 16 th century revived the role of infantry on the battlefield. This new infantry was armed with long pikes and firearms. In order to keep their urban militias up to date, several Italian cities, like Venice and Florence, layed down rules for reformed Ordinanze troops, armed with pikes, halberds and firearms in set proportions. Equipment was rudimentary, reflecting the growing cost of war and a downward spiral of the Italian cities’ economy. Training was equally basic, and one should never lose sight of the fact that these are ordinary citizens, serving for limited periods, and with lives that await them once their military duties are over – they are not the most enthusiastic of soldiers.

The first permanent military formations in service in Italy were those assigned to garrison duty or city protection. These garrisons were made up of infantry called “provisionati” as they received a “provisione” (commission); a regular salary from the public authority. XV Century saw a marked increase in the numbers of these ‘’provisionati’ soldiers. They differed from the mercenary Condottieri and the unstable urban militias by being a permanent infantry force, ordered by state officials, managed and payed without using the “condotta” system. Milano, during the third decade of XV, had 1.000 “provisionati” and, a short time later we can find traces of “provisionati” of San Marco, in service of Venice.

In the beginning they were considered just mercenaries but in Milano and Venice, they began to be considered as a permanent state military, selected, prepared, managed and payed by the government.

Despite the Italian yew wood being considered the best wood for the English longbows, the bow wasn’t much used in Italy – the crossbow was considered a far more potent weapon, especially in sieges.

Bows were used for hunting and in siege battles, and it was still possible to find good archers equipped with both longbows and composite bows in the Italian states.

The first permanent military formations in service in Italy were those assigned to garrison duty or city protection. These garrisons were made up of infantry called “provisionati” as they received a “provisione” (commission); a regular salary from the public authority. XV Century saw a marked increase in the numbers of these ‘’provisionati’ soldiers. They differed from the mercenary Condottieri and the unstable urban militias by being a permanent infantry force, ordered by state officials, managed and payed without using the “condotta” system. Milano, during the third decade of XV, had 1.000 “provisionati” and, a short time later we can find traces of “provisionati” of San Marco, in service of Venice.
In the beginning they were considered just mercenaries but in Milano and Venice, they began to be considered as a permanent state military, selected, prepared, managed and payed by the government.

Crossbows were the primary missile weapons of the Western Europe. Archery fell out of favour, and the crossbow was relatively easy to use. A previously untrained soldier could become skilled in its use in a few months, while bows required a lifetime of dedicated practice, not only to develop the near instinctive feeling for the trajectory of an arrow but also to develop the muscles needed to harness the bows with a draw weight between 80 and 120 kilograms.

The first permanent military formations in service in Italy were those assigned to garrison duty or city protection. These garrisons were made up of infantry called “provisionati” as they received a “provisione” (commission); a regular salary from the public authority. XV Century saw a marked increase in the numbers of these ‘’provisionati’ soldiers. They differed from the mercenary Condottieri and the unstable urban militias by being a permanent infantry force, ordered by state officials, managed and payed without using the “condotta” system. Milano, during the third decade of XV, had 1.000 “provisionati” and, a short time later we can find traces of “provisionati” of San Marco, in service of Venice.
In the beginning they were considered just mercenaries but in Milano and Venice, they began to be considered as a permanent state military, selected, prepared, managed and payed by the government.

The first permanent military formations in service in Italy were those assigned to garrison duty or city protection. These garrisons were made up of infantry called “provisionati” as they received a “provisione” (commission); a regular salary from the public authority. XV Century saw a marked increase in the numbers of these ‘’provisionati’ soldiers. They differed from the mercenary Condottieri and the unstable urban militias by being a permanent infantry force, ordered by state officials, managed and payed without using the “condotta” system. Milano, during the third decade of XV, had 1.000 “provisionati” and, a short time later we can find traces of “provisionati” of San Marco, in service of Venice.
In the beginning they were considered just mercenaries but in Milano and Venice, they began to be considered as a permanent state military, selected, prepared, managed and payed by the government.

The first permanent military formations in service in Italy were those assigned to garrison duty or city protection. These garrisons were made up of infantry called “provisionati” as they received a “provisione” (commission); a regular salary from the public authority. XV Century saw a marked increase in the numbers of these ‘’provisionati’ soldiers. They differed from the mercenary Condottieri and the unstable urban militias by being a permanent infantry force, ordered by state officials, managed and payed without using the “condotta” system. Milano, during the third decade of XV, had 1.000 “provisionati” and, a short time later we can find traces of “provisionati” of San Marco, in service of Venice.
In the beginning they were considered just mercenaries but in Milano and Venice, they began to be considered as a permanent state military, selected, prepared, managed and payed by the government.

Italian infantry of the 16 th century was poorly organized, not very motivated and seldom achieved good results. There were many reasons for that, but lack of suitable recruits was not one of them – when employed by foreign rulers, under the command of foreign officers and organized along Spanish or German lines, they more then held their own. More likely financial difficulties and the lack of proper fighting techniques in domestic armies caused their poor reputation.

A halberd was a mean looking weapon, ranging in length from 1.8 to 2.5 meters. At the end of it was a combination of a pike, an axe and hammer. Such an elaborate design enabled the wielder to chop, impale or pierce the armour of his opponent, or to hold them at a safe distance.

Historically, the first infantry to start using the halberd on a massive scale were the Swiss. They soon learned however, that while useful and practical in a melee, the halberd armed infantry could not hold against heavy cavalry. In the mid 15 th century, they started using pikes instead of halberd, while at the same time still retaining the halberd for a smaller proportion of their army. This proved a winning combination – the pikemen would attack from the front and pin the enemy formation, while the halberdiers acted as flanking forces, rearguards or grouped around the battle standard.

Unlike their lighter brethren, these soldiers are well armoured. Their role in combat is accordingly modified – instead of acting as a fast flanking force, they are often thrown against the front of a pike block. The idea is that they will disrupt the neat lines of an enemy block, relying on their heavy armour and superior weapon handling, making it that much easier for the follow up force of pikemen to rout the enemy from the field.

A halberd was a mean looking weapon, ranging in length from 1.8 to 2.5 meters. At the end of it was a combination of a pike, an axe and hammer. Such an elaborate design enabled the wielder to chop, impale or pierce the armour of his opponent, or to hold them at a safe distance.

Historically, the first infantry to start using the halberd on a massive scale were the Swiss. They soon learned however, that while useful and practical in a melee, the halberd armed infantry could not hold against heavy cavalry. In the mid 15 th century, they started using pikes instead of halberd, while at the same time still retaining the halberd for a smaller proportion of their army. This proved a winning combination – the pikemen would attack from the front and pin the enemy formation, while the halberdiers acted as flanking forces, rearguards or grouped around the battle standard.

ight halberdiers, as their name suggest, wear no armour except the heavily padded clothing characteristic of the Renaissance (which could take the edge of sword cuts), and rely on speed to get into the thick of things.